The English Language Learner Is Defined By The Individuals...

An English language learner is defined as someone who â€Å"has sufficient difficulty speaking, reading, writing, or understanding the English language and whose difficulties may deny such individual the opportunity to learn successfully in classrooms where the language of instruction is in English† (Ortiz, Woika, 2013, p. 2). As defined by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), a child with a disability has â€Å"mental retardation, hearing impairments (including deafness), speech or language impairments, visual impairments (including blindness), serious emotional disturbance, orthopedic impairments, autism, traumatic brain injury, other health impairments, or specific learning disabilities; and who, by reason thereof, needs†¦show more content†¦If a student is both an English language learner and has a learning disability, their educational needs become inherently more complex. However, through research on the needs of English language learners wit h disabilities, on various case laws, and by participating in lectures on the topics of English language learners and students with learning disabilities, I have come to a clearer understanding of these unique needs as well as the processes necessary to identify, evaluate, and work with these students. Prior to the 1960s, both English language learners and students with disabilities were often segregated from their peers, given inadequate instruction, and inappropriately assessed (Ortiz, Woika, 2013). This began to change when, with the holding of Brown vs. board of Education (1954), a principle for equal educational opportunities for all students was brought to fruition (Yell, 1998). After this decision, Title VI of the Civil Rights Act in 1964 prohibited the discrimination of people on the basis of race, color, or national origin in the operation of federally assisted programs. Further, to

Sex And Fender Are Not Equal Contrary - 887 Words

Sex and fender are not equal contrary to common assumption. Sex, as defined by Rosman, is the the â€Å"physical differences between male and female [based on] biological and anatomical composition of genitals and secondary sexual characteristics [like] breast size, hair distribution, [and] body fat†(141). On the other hand, gender is defined as â€Å"the culture-specific set of behavioral, ideological, and social meanings constructed around the understandings of these biological and anatomical differences†(142). So what does this mean? Indeed, the assumption of sex equating to gender is not necessarily true because gender is culturally constructed. Different societies often have different perceptions of what gender is: for instance North American heteronormative culture and gender stratification in comparison with the gender relationships of people in Wogeo (where there are minimal differences between men and women) or of the people in Samoa - specifically focusing on the fa afafine. The film Paradise Bent directed by Heather Croall explores part of the world of fafinines. The fafine of Soma are their own gender defying the gender binaries of strictly male or female. The word itself meansâ€Å"in the manner of a woman† and according to the film, fa afafines are men playing women s roles. They are largely accepted by the communities in which they live. Mothers of fa afafines value and love their fafini son and appreciate their help around the house. Chief Leutele voices that he doesShow MoreRelatedAccounting Information System Chapter 1137115 Words   |  549 Pagesprocessing 25. Sets of numbers are reserved for specific categories of data _15_ z. online, real-time processing 26. The general ledger account corresponding to a subsidiary ledger, where the sum of all subsidiary ledger entries should equal the amount in the general ledger account 2-12 Accounting Information Systems 2.6 For each of the following scenarios identify which data processing method (batch or online, real-time) would be the most appropriate. Some students will

Sartre Revised Free Essays

string(114) " the things that he do, what kinds of act he gets himself involved in, becomes his definition, becomes his being\." Being condemned to be free is ironic. Condemn and free are two words not usually seen together in one sentence making a coherent and firm statement. To condemn is to declare to be reprehensible, wrong, or evil usually after weighing evidence and without reservation. We will write a custom essay sample on Sartre Revised or any similar topic only for you Order Now And to be free is to have the legal and political rights of a citizen. Joined together the words will over right their meaning. And yet philosopher Jean – Paul Sartre managed to make his point stand out and be heard by everyone, outliving 64 years of earthly, human living. What Sartre is trying to tell us, his thoughts and ideas about life here on earth, about our responsibilities, about the trifle things and actions in our everyday lives that we tend to ignore because we think life is bigger than us, that there’s a bigger picture, is what being condemned to be free is all about. In today’s modern world, freedom has become a necessity and has taken on many forms. Gone were the days when women are not allowed to vote, engage in politics and other manly jobs, cannot have a career and is obliged to stay home and manage the household, and be thrown to unwanted marriages arranged by their parents. Now everybody can choose. And many have viewed this right to choose as a form of freedom. One has the right to choose their schools, their career paths to take, their spouses, how many children are they going to have, what will they name their kids, it is just a matter of choosing and directing this freedom to what we think is the right thing to do. After all, not all of us are using this freedom to choose our actions wisely. It all starts with human beings being born free and equal in dignity and rights, the first article from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Men are created equal, and it’s funny that there are people born carrying within them the royal blood. It already raises their political and monetary position above all the common men. They carry with them the noun King, Queen, Prince, Princess, Emperor, and Empress among others before their birth names. They have all the advantages in the world, not having to sit through traffic, not having to be the front liner in a war, not having to work hard to earn a living. In fact, they just sit and everything is done for them, all they have to do is make sure they keep their countries the same as it was before they were born. Up to what extent is this equality in dignity and rights applicable? Now that everybody seems to have a complete grasp of liberty, it appears that being free is not as wanted as it was before. History taught us well enough to know that there have been a number of wars fought for freedom and religion. The tales of man then tells us how others will try to conquer the lands where they have been born, and a leader will fight for their land and in the end they either merge with the conquerors or greatly celebrate their freedom. Religion, too, has been a great propeller of wars. Different beliefs, different doctrines, a different God for every religion, set the plot for a more massive movement that outlasted every century up to now, still counting fatalities. â€Å"The historical reality is that where religious freedom is denied, so too are other basic human rights. † (Why Religious Freedom? ) Religious freedom is just one of the many forms of freedom people are indulging in today. There is also what we call academic freedom. â€Å"The notion of academic freedom is invoked to justify statements by faculties that offend politicians, religious leaders, corporate executives, parents of students, and citizens. (Academic Freedom in the United States) That immediately removes your right as a person to say what you want to say, it obviously is a threat to be opinionated now a days. And it is not just academic; the press is also encountering some form of suppression. According to the Freedom House organization, there are several reasons as to why the media i s being stripped off of its independence. The media can be a source of political opposition, political upheaval, victims of violence, and finally, they can be threats to national security. (Map of Press Freedom) With all the overwhelming talk about freedom, liberty and human rights, one man tries to summarize all this into man being condemned to be free. Jean-Paul Sartre is said to be one of the brightest philosophers of the twentieth century. â€Å"French novelist, playwright, existentialist philosopher, and literary critic. Sartre was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1964, but he declined the honor in protest of the values of bourgeois society. His longtime companion was Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986), whom he met at the Ecole Normale Superieure in 1929. â€Å"(Jean-Paul Sartre 1905-1980) An Existentialist, Sartre is known for his public lecture, Existentialism and Humanism and his magnum opus, Being and Nothingness. Sartre’s greatest work, Being and Nothingness is subtitled: Phenomenological Ontology. He starts his discussion with the description of two kinds of being. According to him there is the in-itself and the for-itself. The beings-in-themselves are the ordinary objects, while the being-for-itself are the human agents. (Jean-Paul Sartre) The beings-in-themselves or ordinary objects do not have the capability to change or create. A chair is nothing more than what it is, it cannot change its appearance on its own, nor can it create something out of its being. A human agent is a being-for-itself because it is a being with conscious plans, purposes and intentions. It is able to project forward from a given situation to a future possibility that is not yet realized. The uncertainty of human life and purpose, the venturing into the unknown is what makes and defines human life distinct from the others. As human life progresses, the things that he do, what kinds of act he gets himself involved in, becomes his definition, becomes his being. You read "Sartre Revised" in category "Papers" A person is born not knowing that he will pursue a career in medicine. As he grows up and goes to medical school he is defined. He has found a definition for his life, that of a doctor. For Sartre, if a being-for-itself starts to question its purpose and meaning, it starts to have a consciousness. The consciousness makes it possible for the human to know everything around him, and everything that is not around him. As it now knows that it is not an ordinary object but something else. Something undefined, something that is not yet known to him. So starts the journey to fill in an empty palette. In not knowing, in a human’s nothingness, he is free. There is this whole notion that if you are inside a prison cell, you are not free. You are bounded by rows and rows of bars, controlled by correctional officers, undermined by more experienced inmates. But if we were to use Sartre’s definition of freedom, no Alcatraz can set limits on our liberty. In fact, this will even define the person and not limit his being free. The core idea of the text is that man is condemned to be free, meaning that in this freedom that we have, we are still responsible for our actions. We cannot evade our responsibilities and say that we did not choose it to happen, because our actions are unmistakably ours alone. Nobody does our actions but us. Even if we are not inside jail cells, we are still attached to obligations and duties which we can only be held responsible to bringing upon ourselves. â€Å"Man being condemned to be free carries the weight of the world on his shoulders; he is responsible for the world and for himself as a way of being. † Every action that we do, we know and we are conscious of us doing it. We cannot clean our hands and say that we did not want that to happen. We are abandoned in the sense that we cannot but the blame on somebody else. We carry the burden; nobody can help us with it. Sartre pointed out a few arguments to support his view. He mentioned three reasons why human-reality is free. Human – reality is free because it is not enough. Human – reality is free because it is perpetually wrenched away from itself and because it has been separated by a nothingness from what it is and from what it will be. And finally, human – reality is free because its present being is itself a nothingness in the form of the reflection-reflecting. Basically what he is trying to say is that our life here on earth is not enough to explore everything that this world can offer us. We continue to be free in spite and despite of the fact that there is a limit to everything. Freedom is the nothingness which is made-to-be at the heart of man, it forces human – reality to make itself instead of to be. For human – reality to be is to choose oneself. Sartre tells us that if a person should make something out of his nothingness, then he makes use of his freedom. He has to make himself something out of this freedom. His freedom opens his world to a lot of choices. What one would want to do, what one would make out of the small money one has, what one will do when one wakes up in the morning. These things that one chooses to do will give him the being of man. Man cannot be sometimes slave and sometimes free; he is wholly and forever free or he is not free at all. For to be wholly free is to be given responsibility. And to not be free, one is not given responsibility, which will never be the case because only the beings-in-themselves or the ordinary objects are those that cannot assume responsibility. He must assume the situation with the proud consciousness of being the author of it. Our lives are like books. They have a plot, a setting and characters. But who makes things happen? Is it not us? We are the author of our own books, we make things happen. However bad the situation that we find ourselves in, we must assume responsibility and get through the challenge. Absolute responsibility is not resignation; it is the logical requirement of the consequences of our freedom. When free, man chooses to do things. And when man chooses to do things, these things will always have consequences. For example, man chooses to swim at high noon. After awhile, he finds himself with his skin burning from being exposed to the sun too long. This is the consequence of his actions. His freedom to choose his actions makes him absolutely responsible for whatever it brings to him. There is no non-human situation because all decisions are human. Even if we say that man does inhuman things, like that of nuclear war, murder and rape, this will never be a non-human situation simply because the decision to get involved is of human nature. You try to reason with yourself that maybe what you are doing is wrong and not just, and yet you still decide to do it. It is still a human who is behind the act; hence, it is not a non-human situation. There are no accidents in life. For lack of getting out of it, I have chosen it. It is a matter of choice. Here Sartre points out that what happens in life does not happen by chance. We get ourselves involved by our choice, and if we say we do not have a choice, and we cannot get ourselves out of it, we still have chosen it. Because we always have a choice. Even if that choice is suicide or not doing our duties, it is still an option to get out of a situation. Human – reality is without excuse. Lastly, Sartre tell us that one cannot ask, â€Å"Why was I born? or curse the day of his birth or declare that he did not ask to be born, for these various attitudes toward his birth – i. e. , toward the fact that he realizes a presence in the world – are absolutely nothing else but ways of assuming this birth in full responsibility and of making it his. When man becomes conscious of his p resence and being in this world, it follows that he accepts responsibility. Because now he knows and is fully aware of the things that he is doing, his freedom, and once aware of his freedom, he is found to be responsible. I think that Jean-Paul Sartre wants to find meaning in life just like everybody else. The answer to the question, â€Å"Why was I born? † Sartre answered simply. Unlike other schools of thought, namely the determinists and the proponents of free will, Sartre focused on man’s is being condemned to be free but with full responsibility. Sartre said that the proponents of free will are concerned with finding cases of decision for which there exists no prior cause or deliberations concerning two opposed acts which are equally possible and possess causes or motives of the same weight. Hence they try to reason that a person is born with the free will to find a cause for himself. However, the determinists reply saying that there is no action without a cause and that the most insignificant gesture refers to causes and motives which confer its meaning upon it. So for them, man is born with a cause already. Sartre simply answered this question when he said that man is born out of nothingness, and in this nothingness, he is free. And like most philosophical view points, Sartre is very much ridiculed for his existentialist values. There are objections to him mostly because of his atheistic ideals saying that he believes that we are living in a universe with no God, no morality, nothing absolute. Abandonment: Condemned to be Free) His stand on being free that leaves us with a feeling of abandonment because we are solely responsible for everything, comes from his realization that there is no supreme being, being God that guides us and supports us every step of the way. We are alone and we cannot ask for a God to help us in situations that we cannot possibly escape f rom. His definition of freedom permits everybody to do whatever we want, because we all have choices and responsibilities to bear. And if we have chosen to be a part of a non-human situation, we would still find ourselves deciding humanely. For example, a man participates in murdering another man, it is his choice to participate in the killing, and nobody forces him to do so. The other man is now dead, because man is free to choose what to do; he is not judged as doing something wrong. Instead, as long as he deems himself responsible for the killing, he is free. What we do not understand much is that our being free has to come with responsibility. Yes we get to do whatever we want, but we still have to consider the consequences and assume responsibility for it. By then, we cannot dare say that we did not want this. Nobody else is responsible for the things we do but ourselves. We choose, even if we say that we left it all to chance. Leaving it to chance is still an option that we choose. The life given to us, it is a choice. Everything we do, we do without regrets or remorse. There should be no excuses, for we are the authors of our situation, nobody else but us. In my own opinion, I greatly value Sartre’s work. He proves that there are so many reasons why we should enjoy our life here on earth and how much freedom we have. He points out a great deal of effort as to why we do things not needing a direct cause or a cause not to do it. But I do also possess a great amount of respect to the Supreme Being. I know that there are people who believe that they do not need a God, who believes that life here on earth is just passing and not really owed to him. But for me, that is not the case. I believe that we are not alone, and that there is someone out there who gives us hope and who makes us keep our faith. Yes, we have to be responsible for the things that we do. But that responsibility comes with great respect and consideration for other people around us. We just cannot hastily do things and hope that we do not get in the way of somebody. Life is governed by rules, by the law. If there will be none of these rules and laws, there is definitely chaos. And I do not think that suicide is neither an option nor a last resort. We cannot simply find the easy way out. What is the thrill in just killing yourself if you cannot overcome challenges and obstacles in your life? Why do you have family and significant others to share your dilemma with? I believe that our troubles are our responsibilities, but it does not stop us from asking help. There are now numerous numbers to call in case we decide not to confide to our family members or to our closest friends, especially if we want to remain anonymous. If other people find ways to help other people, especially those who established organizations like alcoholics anonymous, etc. , why can we not indulge in these as well? Yes we always have a choice, and suicide is not one of them. Yes we have the freedom to do that, but if you believe that everybody is given an equal and a second chance, would you do it? We do have our own burdens and crosses to carry, but everything is possible as long as we have faith. Faith in ourselves, to always have the courage to face our problems, faith in life, that it may not let us down and faith in the Supreme Being, to whom we know we are always taken care of. How to cite Sartre Revised, Papers

UNCC for Good Entails Services and Commodities - myassignmenthelp

Question: Write about theUNCC for Good Entails Services and Commodities. Answer: It is no doubt that, a typical product cannot be separated from the public point of view. In fact, common good entails services and commodities that are produced the benefit of an ordinary citizen. For instance, the production of clothing is an activity targeting the public since nobody can be questioned for having worn any type of clothing since preferences vary from one person to the other. Many times the production of clothing has been faced with a myriad of challenges since time immemorial correctly when focusing on ethics that are to be followed for equality and attainment of human dignity. Since the issue has come to light and its itching nature serving as the basis for evaluation, it has become crucial to look for the way forward in an attempt to ensure that at the end we shall have a just society whereby community engagement and advocacy are addressed to suit the expectation of every citizen. In particular, providing a critique concerning ethics of clothing in line with commo n good will be crucial in explaining underlying challenges as well as providing ways to address the problem is bound to bring stability in the community. According to the Catholic social teaching principles, a common good should take care of the dignity of work and the right of workers. In connection to ethics observed in the production of clothing, there is a deficit of the principle as mentioned above in that human dignity is put at stake (Hill Capella, 2014. The findings from clothing factory that collapsed in 2016 in Bangladesh serves as a right example towards highlighting the extent upon which human dignity was undermined. Evidently, around one thousand workers lost their lives while many others sustained serious injuries. Far from the fact that the collapse claimed more than expected lives of people, the proceedings taking place in the factory even before the incident were not satisfactory. Laczniak, Santos, and Klein (2016) posit that severally employees complained of poor pay by their employers in the production of clothing that attracted much attention in several parts of the globe one of them being the United States of Ame rica. Surprisingly, the suspects who were to be held accountable concerning the collapse of the building are still free from conviction, whereas affected families are still claiming for justice. Ilo (2014) postulates that Catholic social teaching principles dictate the essence of solidarity in the production of a typical product. Ideally, production of clothing does not put into account the plight of solidarity in bringing balance to the issues arising from that perspective. In fact, the commotion resulting from the production of clothing point of view tends to have negated from the reality of the matter concerning solidarity. It is a feature of public good to be misused by the participants due to lack of restrictions (Mizzoni, 2014). In that matter, the plight of the workers union is assumed whereby fighting for their rights by conducting p peaceful campaigns is never condoned. That is a clear implication that whether the workers are paid poorly, no one can stand to raise the concern in the fear that they will be sacked and replaced by other needy people seeking for employment. Evidently, the production of clothing is cheap hence compelling firms to maximize the profits by taking advantage of the employees (Thompson, 2015). In that case, solidarity is undermined to the extent of depriving the society of peace and stability. Catholic social teaching takes care of call to family, community, and participation. It is factual that attainment of right ethics in the production of clothing, the community must play its role fully (Freise Seuring, 2015). On the contrary, the community seems to have lagged behind in joining hands towards condemning unsatisfactory activities taking place in the clothing industry. For instance, when the rights of workers in the garment industry are exploited, employees might be compelled to remain calm for fear of being sacked. However, the community should participate on their behalf to claim justice. Unfortunately, everyone seems to have kept quiet hence comfortably watching the rights of others in facilitating the production of common good being takes for granted. McNeill Moore (2015) highlight that to achieve a more just society, it becomes necessary to take hold on community engagement. As previously highlighted that a standard product is meant to benefit each member of the community, working together as one is the only way enjoyment of that particular good can be attained. Community engagement, in this case, entails ensuring that families and the society as a whole join hands in the fighting for the rights of other key players who will devote their efforts towards ensuring production of decent clothing for the community. It is true that the community might remain quiet and have their demands met accordingly although there is little theory to support such a postulation. In fact, the truth of the matter is that if one party suffers, all the people are deemed to have incurred in the process concerning common good (Turker Altuntas, 2014). For instance, a healthy working environment implies that workers and other related stakeholders are motiv ated to give the best out of their skills. Also, providing the incentive to the employees is a clear indication quality of labor and goods produced will be outstanding for the benefit of a community. On the other hand, if the community does not arise to fight for their counterparts, exploitation of labor will be evident, and workers will participate in the provision of below standard work that claims poor production of clothing that does not suit the expectations of the public. In short, community engagement should be upheld at all time. Employers and the management should work together in taking care of dignity of labor and the right of workers. It is under the provisions of every firm to consider the value of employees about their rights and dignity of the work they perform (Cavusoglu Dakhli, 2016). It makes little or no sense when the management has to take right steps towards meeting the workers needs only when forced to do so. Similarly, it is expected that for a company that is engaged in the production of common good have to appear in the government records for compliance. However, much of the details regarding the degraded rights of workers remain a concern with many people seeking for the explanation as to the reasons for having poor leadership in the practical world. It is the responsibility of the employers and the whole management at large to ensure quality services and treatments to the workers either in the presence or the absence of governments supervisory body (Dawkins, 2014). Far from focusing on th e management alone to take care of the plight of workers, labor unions are entrusted with the responsibility of making follow-ups that are meant to bring stability in the working environment. The laxity of the labor and workers union paves the way for strict exploitation of employees whereby they feel degraded in the presence of their associates entrusted with the responsibility of fighting for them. Precisely, growing the urge to meet the demand of workers for the labor and workers union will compel employers to spread justice in the working environment as far as clothing production is concerned. The relevant stakeholders to ensure ethics in clothing production is met should uphold solidarity and advocacy. In line with the values of production of clothing, some professional advocates are equipped with the skill necessary to yield positive change in the community (Dawkins, 2014). Solidarity is enhanced when it dawn to every stakeholder that taking care of upright ways of cloth production is the responsibility of everyone. As a result, seeking for clarification concerning itching issues in clothing industry becomes an integral part of living. Failure to invest in advocacy can foresee the destruction of creation, hence putting the future of our generations at risk. McNeill Moore (2015) suggest that due to the recklessness of the real advocate in 2013 in London, people came out in large numbers in a protest to condemn David Cameron for the climate change. The rally came right after many eucalyptuses were cut down to provide essential elements for the production of leather jacket s. Surprisingly, London became deficient of trees of such kind hence forcing Cameron to extend the reach to Australia. Consequently, climate change concern emerged hence forcing people on the streets to claim the lost glory of their environment. In short, advocating for the prevention of exploitation of environment is crucial since it falls under the provisions of the clothing industry. In conclusion, clothing industry seems to have neglected important forms of ethics that are essential to the survival of human being and the achievement of a sustainable environment. Community engagements, as well as advocacy, are the spear headers towards the achievement of dignity and right of worker and maintenance of the worthwhile environment. Briefly, ethics regarding clothing industry about Catholic social teaching principles should be upheld to achieve a just society. References Cavusoglu, L., Dakhli, M. (2016). The Impact of Ethical Concerns on Fashion Consumerism: A Review.Markets, Globalization Development Review,1(2). Dawkins, C. E. (2014). The principle of good faith: Toward substantive stakeholder engagement.Journal of Business Ethics,121(2), 283-295. Freise, M., Seuring, S. (2015). Social and environmental risk management in supply chains: a survey in the clothing industry.Logistics Research,8(1), 2. Hill, R. P., Capella, M. L. (2014). Impoverished consumers, Catholic social teaching, and distributive justice.Journal of Business Research,67(2), 32-41. Ilo, S. C. (2014).The church and development in Africa: Aid and development from the perspective of Catholic social ethics(Vol. 2). Wipf and Stock Publishers. Laczniak, G. R., Santos, N. J., Klein, T. A. (2016). On the Nature of Good Goods and the Ethical Role of Marketing.Journal of Catholic Social Thought,13(1), 63-81. McNeill, L., Moore, R. (2015). Sustainable fashion consumption and the fast fashion conundrum: fashionable consumers and attitudes to sustainability in clothing choice.International Journal of Consumer Studies,39(3), 212-222. Mizzoni, J. (2014). Environmental ethics: A Catholic view.Environmental Ethics,36(4), 405-419. Thompson, J. M. (2015).Introducing catholic social thought. Orbis Books. Turker, D., Altuntas, C. (2014). Sustainable supply chain management in the fast fashion industry: An analysis of corporate reports.European Management Journal,32(5), 837-849.

The Bone Cage by Angie Abdou Essay Example

The Bone Cage by Angie Abdou Essay The Bone Cage by Angie Abdou is a novel that drew you into a world of strict routine, constant pressure, and physical stamina. Abdou shows you the lifestyle of two elite athletes sacrificing their way to the top of the podium at the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games. She displays the rise and fall of swimmer, Sadie Jorgensen and wrestler Tom â€Å"Digger† Stapleton in there hometown of Calgary, Canada. This tale of these two protagonists alternates until their paths cross, changing their destinies. This novel was well written, along with it being easy to read and comprehend. I enjoyed how it switched between the characters two individual lives and their journey proving that these athletes just eat, sleep, and do their sport. Abdou’s characters both endure physical, psychological, and emotional sacrifices that I believe make or break an athlete and she portrayed that very well. An athletes motto is â€Å"The road to glory’s paved with sweat. No pain, no gain. 1% inspirat ion, 99% perspiration. Just do it.†(10). Sadie mentioned after discussing her reasoning due to her suffer. Next, she also did an excellent job at showing how it is hard work to play sports at that level, and just how much time and dedication it takes to succeed. Furthermore, Sadie was an english major in university, this improved the dialogue and vocabulary. The key conflict in this novel was that after Sadie and Digger met half way through the book and began a life together. There relationship began sweetly but naively- a naivety about life and sport that is shattered for both of them when Sadie’s chances for competing in the Olympics are put on hold from a head-on collision on there way to there vacation. Sadie gets seriously injured and struggles to overcome the trauma of her injury which may end her athletic career as a swimmer. Of course, in this story clarity is only found after tragedy, what was really important is that you have to pick up that old bone cage and to We will write a custom essay sample on The Bone Cage by Angie Abdou specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Bone Cage by Angie Abdou specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Bone Cage by Angie Abdou specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer

Crashing on Cocaine Essays

Crashing on Cocaine Essays Crashing on Cocaine Essay Crashing on Cocaine Essay Throughout Yous many days and nights of using cocaine, he avoids coming to his senses of telling and accepting the truth. Instead, You fills gaps and mishaps in his life with lies. The lies begin with his resume, on which he claimed to know French. In all actuality, You does not know any French but is too proud to admit he was lying. Thus, Yous lying resulted in the French article being a disaster. Also, another lie You devices is the fake Vogue invitation to see Amanda. You claims to be Mister Allagash, and started working for Vogue last week (McInerney 119). Yous continuous creation of lies, eventually unravels, causing him further failures with work and his personal life. As the failures multiply, so does Yous cocaine addiction to get him through everyday life. Not only did You lie about his resume and an invitation but also about his life with Amanda. The only person who knows the truth, that Amanda was never coming back from Paris to be with You, is Tad. Tad sent his condolences but expressed to You how he could use this to his advantage in getting women: He advised you to say that Amanda died in a plane crash on her way home from Paris. . . (McInerney 44). According to Tad, playing the sympathy game is always more effective in getting with the ladies. However, You never uses the sympathy scheme that Tad advises when they are out partying. Instead, You avoids the question and tells everyone that he is not sure where Amanda is, again creating another lie. Creating lies about where Amanda is and how she is doing, comes easy to You when he is under the influence of cocaine or prior use of cocaine. Also, when people at work ask about Amanda and You, he lies and tells everyone that everything is going well. When in all actuality Amanda wants nothing to do with You and is not returning home. As for You, he does not have a clue where or how Amanda is doing with her career. Also, when You first sees and speaks with his brother, Michael, he tells his brother that Amanda is out shopping. Although, that is not the truth, and it is not until after You and his brother have a fist fight that You breaks down and tells Michael the truth. The truth is that Amanda left him and is not coming home from France. Overall, when You is out on the town with Tad and various women, he avoids telling the truth and eventually uses cocaine to get him through many evenings. Also, You avoids telling the truth by telling many lies about his personal life. Thus, when the truth comes out about how he does not know any French, his false invitation, and his life with Amanda, You resorts to cocaine to get him through the day or evening and for a sense of security that everything will turn out for the better. Throughout Yous life he finds comfort in cocaine, much like other cocaine addicts are comforted throughout their lives with the use of cocaine. Cocaine users often confide in cocaine usage to motivate themselves in overwhelming and difficult issues in life. The difficult issues often deal with family, friends, and an individuals personal life or their work atmosphere. For You, cocaine affects his actions and responses to the problems that originally stem from the acceptance he finds in cocaine. You eventually is unable to perform his job accurately due to numerous days without sleep and the lack of sleep turns into his forgetfulness. Which all result in the loss of his job. Due to the added stress cocaine users endure and affects of cocaine, over a short period of time addicts, especially You, suffer from anxiety and paranoia. Most of the time Yous anxiety and paranoia is due to the fact he is high on cocaine and wonders what is happening or has happened in his nights of partying. In order to avoid and having to deal with reality cocaine addicts tend to avoid the truth by lying and escaping into a fantasy world. Intertwined in Yous vast problems is the fact that he avoids telling the truth and fulfills his mishaps with lies, common characteristic of most cocaine addicts. You, resorts to cocaine to comfort him from the truth. Overall, cocaine is a motivator, a stimulant, and a way of life for all addicts including You. Anderson, Kurt. Crashing on Cocaine. Time 11 Apr. 1983:23-29. Bozza, Kerry L. Cocaine Can Kill. Current Health 1 Jan. 2002:14. McInerney, Jay. Bright Lights, Big City. New York: Random House, 1984. Peele, Stanton. Visions of Addiction. Lexington: Lexington Books, 1988. Woods, Geraldine and Harold. Cocaine. New York: Time Inc., 1985.

Customer Relationship Management in IBM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Customer Relationship Management in IBM - Essay Example The paper tells that â€Å"premier relationship companies† are those organizations that successfully develop good relationships with the customers by creating an appropriate cost structure and business arrangement. An organization which can successfully attain new customers and make them loyal can be termed as a premier relationship company. It generates good value for the company in the market. The relationship between an organization and its customers provides a framework for developing a â€Å"premier relationship company† which is mutually beneficial for customers as well as for the business. Developing as a good â€Å"premier relationship company† begins with creating effective association with the customers. In order to enhance the relationship there is need for understanding their requirements and provide personalized products or services accordingly. Conducting dialogue with customers can provide information through exchanging opinions in the form of ment al association. By the use of explicit bargains, organizations can manage all the queries of customers and accordingly collect related information about them so that their requirements are recognized. For any organization to engage explicitly with the customers there must be a mutually beneficial dialogue between them. There are several ways that organizations can communicate with the customers e.g. cooperative communication technologies. The cooperative communication technologies are considered as significant mechanisms for creating explicit bargains. They can interact with customers directly though utilizing separate media. An explicit bargain is a kind of agreement that an organization makes with the customers to save their time, get their attention and receive their feedback. In explicit bargain, dialogue and interaction play vital parts in order to boost the relationships. Explicit bargain techniques are valuable for an organization to recompense the customers in the form of of fering discounts, refunds and better facilities, in return for the involvement in the interchange process. Organizations use websites, e-mails, voice calls and text messaging among others for creating explicit bargains, with the desire for making consumers realize advertising communications and react to the marketing and sales promotion offers (Peppers, D. & Rogers, M., â€Å"Managing Customer Relationships: A Strategic Framework†). Explicit Bargain in IBM The customer relationship management strategies help IBM to enhance the relationship with the customers. In order to make explicit bargain, IBM uses online strategies such as social networking strategies and loyal chat room, and provides the customers the opportunity to give feedbacks and opinions regarding the products and the services. The websites of IBM can respond to the e-mails send by the customers who desire for gaining information. IBM maintains constant dialogue with their customers and constantly examines the com munication with them. It helps to monitor the views of the customers and thereby develop products or modify them according to their

Zoltan Kodaly Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Zoltan Kodaly - Research Paper Example In 1906, he attained a PHD with a thesis on Hungarian folk music, and from then, he started to work together with his friend Bartok. They both collaborated in collecting folksong and in advocating for a new vitality in Hungarian musical sector. Like Bartok, the administration at Budapest Academy nominated him to a professorship in 1907, and he stayed in the city for the rest of his life (Griffiths, 1). In his adolescence, Kodaly toured various parts of Hungary due to being the son of a stationmaster. This made him to gain a lot of knowledge of the variety of the nation’s folk music. In addition, he inherited his parents’ passion for classical music. His early work including sonata for cello and piano demonstrate his familiarization to folk aspects into a principally melodic style (Wintle, 279). Contribution to Music education As a well-known Hungarian composer and musician, Kodaly utilized a considerable part of his inventive efforts to the musical education of the Hungarian country. He developed this concern over several years beginning with the folk song collection in 1905. In the 1920's, he started composing for children's choruses and required his composition learners to practice the same. This was after being conscious of the great concern to advance the quality of singing and music training of children and teachers equally. Folk music offered motivation, in addition to the musical foundation, for many of the compositions. By 1929, he resolved to change the teaching of music and make it an essential part of the education of every child (Singers.com, 1).

Hydrogen bonding and drug designs Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Hydrogen bonding and drug designs - Term Paper Example Hydrogen bonding and drug designs The extent of solubility of a solute depends on its hydrophilic nature. A molecule is more soluble if it can form numerous hydrogen bonds with its water solvent.1 Hydrophobic interactions between hydrophobic regions of the binding site of a ligand and its lipophilic surfaces are important predictors of its interactions in a biological system, which may affect water solubility to such an extent that may even result in unfavorable pharmacokinetic properties.2 It is thus evident that the number of hydrogen bonds made by a drug is an important determinant of its solubility, and ultimately, its bioavailability and effectiveness in a living system. This paper reviews three studies on the hydrogen bonding properties of drugs in an attempt to investigate the utility of hydrogen bonding studies in drug solubility prediction and drug design. Methodology The aim of this paper is to investigate the effects of hydrogen bonding on the molecular properties of drugs dissolved in water. Additionally, other aspects of the role of hydrogen bonding in drug design will also be dealt with. For the purpose of this review, studies relevant to the aims of this paper were searched via Google Scholar. Three most relevant studies were chosen based on the correlation of their subject of study and the aims of this paper. Results The first study assessed the impact of hydrogen bonding on molecular properties, namely Infrared (IR) and Raman spectra, of three drug molecules (caffeine, aspirin, and ibuprofen) dissolved in water.... ssolved in water.3 The second study investigated various computational and experimental models for the prediction of aqueous drug solubility.4 The third study presented a theoretical calculation of the strength of hydrogen bonding of drug molecules. The findings of these studies are systematically reviewed here. As the first study3 investigated changes in spectra upon dissolution of drugs in water, a frequency calculation was done for three drug molecules (caffeine, aspirin, and ibuprofen) in both gas phase and aqueous solution. IR and Raman spectra of the molecules were analyzed to investigate the influence of both long and short-range interactions on spectral intensity and vibrational frequency. The investigated frequencies were divided into three regions, namely – high, middle and low frequencies. Four different calculations were carried out. The first two calculations began with gas phase geometry optimization followed by calculation of IR and Raman frequencies in the gas phase (GS) and in PCM (Polarized continuum model) using water as solvent. The last two calculations were also done in two stages – geometry optimization with the water molecules located where they are assumed to form hydrogen bonds, followed by calculation of IR and Raman frequencies with and without polarized dielectric continuum. The structures of the three drug molecules with hydrogen-bonded water are shown in figures 1, 2 & 3. Figure 1 — Structure of aspirin hydrogen bonded to water molecules Figure 2 — Structure of caffeine hydrogen bonded to water molecules Figure 3 — Structure of Ibuprofen hydrogen bonded to water molecules In case of caffeine, there was a very small IR absorbance in the high frequency region except for peaks of higher absorbance indicating presence of OH bonds in

McMurphys One Flew Over The Cuckoos Nest

McMurphys One Flew Over The Cuckoos Nest This question is answered through the investigation of five specific aspects of McMurphys life in the asylum: McMurphys arrival into the asylum, his healing miracles, the change and truth McMurphy brings, his followers, and lastly, McMurphys death. These aspects in the novel will bring the revelations of McMurphys Christ-likeness and unlikeness, closer to the requirements of the research question. In each phase of McMurphys life, I assessed the extent to which Kesey portrayed McMurphy as a Christ-figure, keeping in mind the intentions of the author, as well as its effect on the American society in the 1960s. While using this novel as a primary resource, I also explored secondary resources like study guides, published interviews, journal articles, literary criticism and the Internet. The essay concludes that Kesey has portrayed McMurphy as a satirical Comic Christ. Kesey eases into the idea of McMurphy as Messiah. McMurphy becomes increasingly Christ-like as the plot progresses, indicated by the increasing intensity of the allusions from simple unobtrusive allusions in his arrival, to pronounced biblical allusions to Christ in his death. While McMurphy becomes more of a Christ-figure, he still retains the essence of his character throughout the novel his irreverent nature. Through the portrayal of McMurphy as a Comic Christ, Kesey echoes his anti-establishment feelings throughout the novel. This influences the readers perspective, particularly the straight-laced American society of the 1960s, on issues such as conformity and individuality. Kesey encourages readers to adopt a personal sense of morality, as the views of the majority may not necessarily be the best. INTRODUCTION One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest by Ken Kesey captures the anti-establishment sentiments of America in the 1960s through the arrival of anarchist R.P. McMurphy at a mental asylum in Oregon, the ‘Cuckoos Nest of the title. Using McMurphys conflict with Nurse Ratched and the ‘Combine, this classic deals with issues prevalent in its era. The supposition that Kesey shapes McMurphy after the archetype of Jesus Christ resounds in much of the literary criticism written on One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest. This essay aims to ascertain the extent to which Kesey models McMurphy after Christ. It also aims to examine the effect this has on plot development and readers reactions. It will do this by answering the question: Many critics believe that McMurphy in One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest by Ken Kesey is deliberately portrayed as a Christ-figure. To what extent does Kesey portray McMurphy as a Christ-figure? A Christ-figure is an individual who displays certain Christ-like traits, and is comparable to Christ of the Bible. The character may possess divine qualities such as the ability to perform miracles. He may also bring new truths with him, and fight for justice by defying authority. The Christ-figure is often a martyr, sacrificing himself for the liberation of others. This can be seen as his ultimate act of love. In One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest, McMurphy is a parallel of Jesus in some aspects. In order to define the extent to which Kesey wants us to look at McMurphy as a Christ-figure, this essay will delve into five distinct aspects of McMurphys life: McMurphys entrance into the institution, his miracle healings, the revelation of truth and changes McMurphy brings with him, McMurphys disciples and McMurphys death. The significance of McMurphys entrance into the asylum. The novel begins with McMurphys entrance into the psychiatric ward. Bromden, who narrates the story from his perspective, describes McMurphy as â€Å"no ordinary Admission† An ‘Admission would normally be given an ‘Admission shower, where Kesey hints that the â€Å"black boys† rape the ‘Admissions with a rectal thermometer. In 1960s America, where racial discrimination was still at its peak, African-Americans were viewed as the dregs of society. Particularly in the South, African-Americans were subject to harsh treatment. In the 1960s, the rape of the new ‘Admissions by the â€Å"black boys† emphasizes their vulnerability and weakness. Unlike the usual ‘Admission who submits with a â€Å"weak little yes†, McMurphy brassily refuses the ‘Admission shower. His strength and assurance marks him as the odd one out. McMurphy is in full control of the situation and is not easily pushed around. This is apparent when he tells the â€Å"black boy†, â€Å"Get back away from me with that thermometer, Sam†. Not only does he command Sam confidently and boldly, he also calls him by his name. In contrast, one â€Å"black boy† describes Bromden, who is a foil to McMurphy, as â€Å"big enough to eat apples off my head an he mine me like a baby†. Bromdens timid and submissive nature highlights McMurphys assertive personality, making McMurphy seem larger than life despite being physically smaller than Bromden in reality. McMurphys sanity amidst a ward of mentally ill patients makes him superior. In spite of this, McMurphy enters the ward humbly, shaking everyones hand. This humble act implies that McMurphy regards everyone as an equal, despite being a cut above the rest. At this point in the novel, it would never occur to readers that McMurphy is an archetype of Christ. Kesey makes no hint of McMurphy as a Christ-figure. McMurphys entrance into the psychiatric ward is dissimilar to Christs entrance into the world, apart from having a powerful presence, which is hardly a character trait exclusive to Christ. McMurphy is vastly different from Christ. He is a sex addict convicted of having sexual relations with a â€Å"child of fifteen†, as well as a â€Å"gambling fool†with a deck of cards showing â€Å"fifty-two (sex) positions†. The courts ruled that he was a psychopath who â€Å"fights and fucks too much†. McMurphy owns boxer shorts with â€Å"big white whales†resembling Melvilles Moby-Dick, which is possibly perceived as a phallic pun, though, it can also symbolise the omnipresent and all-powerful nature of God , reinstating McMurphys character as a Christ-figure that is unabashedly sexual. However, McMurphys profanities make him an unusual Christ-figure, as he engages in the vices that Christianity teaches against. In The Comic Christ and the Modern Reader, Richard B. Hauck presents the notion that ‘The Christ-figure Metaphor Hunt is played between the reader and the author, whereby readers search for clues that prove a character is an imitation of Christ. In an effort to hide the clues, the author may purposefully assign conflicting character traits, creating a character with moral ambiguity. Perhaps it is this thrilling game, together with the humour American readers find in irony, which allows this classic to withstand the test of time. The effect of McMurphys healing miracles. A common trait of Christ-figures in literature is the ability to perform miracles. McMurphy accomplishes two healing miracles that bear slight resemblance to the miracles Christ performed during his lifetime. Ellis, who was once an ‘Acute, becomes a ‘Chronic after being sent to the ‘Shock Shop to undergo electroconvulsive therapy. â€Å"Now hes nailed against the wall in the same condition they lifted him off the table for the last time, in the same shape, arms out, palms cupped, with the same horror on his face.†Ellis position corresponds to the position of a crucified person. Crucifixion, practiced by ancient Romans, is a means of punishment for criminals. Not only does it strip a person of his dignity and life, it also serves as a warning to society on the ramifications of crime. Nurse Ratched uses Ellis as an instrument to show others what they can become if they rebel. Unlike a crucified person who dies shortly after, Ellis persistent suffering occurs daily. After McMurphy tells Ellis to arise because a grown man should not be â€Å"sloshin in his own water†, Ellis responds by momentarily stepping away from his crucified position Like Christ, McMurphy alleviates others suffering. His ability to evoke a response from Ellis demonstrates his power to release a person from the grips of evil that is embodied in Nurse Ratched. However, McMurphy is no infallible god. He does not manage to successfully heal Ellis. It is noted that Ellis miracle is rather short-lived, as he returns to the original crucified position. If Kesey were to attribute Christ-like sovereignty to McMurphy at this point, it may have upset readers in 1960s America. From a strict Christian perspective, it is considered blasphemous that a mere human with his shortcomings should be compared to Christ. Kesey gradually eases into the idea of McMurphy as a saviour, instead of blatantly shocking readers by turning a contemptuous man into a saviour overnight. In the subsequent miracle, McMurphy prompts muted Bromden to speak, by offering him a piece of gum. Bromden opens his mouth to thank him This corresponds with Christs miracle when he caused a mute to speak by casting out a demon within him. In this case, it is not the demon that prevents Bromden from speaking. Rather, it is the fear of the ‘Combine that suppresses his words, which McMurphy successfully manages to dissipate. While Ellis miracle does not last, Bromdens transformation is permanent. He begins to communicate increasingly with the ‘Acutes under McMurphys influence. Relating back to Keseys own experiences, from 1960 to 1961, he volunteered for government drug experiments at Menlo Park Hospital. After which, he became a psychiatric aide in the same ward. Having spent his time as both patient and staff, Keseys intimate knowledge of the patients circumstances aroused a deep sense of empathy for them. In his letter to Babbs titled â€Å"PEOPLE ON THE WARD†, Kesey identifies the patients by their â€Å"empty eyes†. This presents a poignant image; instead of seeing their soul through the windows of their eyes, all Kesey sees are â€Å"dilapidated organs, grinding through their organ duties†, as if living in the mental institution robs patients of their essence, just like how Ellis and Bromden deteriorate from ‘Acutes to ‘Chronics. This hints Keseys dislike for mental institutions, and his hopes for a saviour for redemption. Another interpretation is that these miracles are metaphors for the political situation in America in the sixties. Patients are referred to as â€Å"mechanical puppets†controlled by Nurse Ratched. The mental illnesses that she inflicts upon patients either rob them of the ability to express or confine self-expression, which Kesey reveals through the suffering Ellis and muted Bromden respectively. Ellis and Bromden represent society, and the ‘Combine, the government. Perhaps Kesey feels that the government suppresses ones individuality, and McMurphy is a projection of his desire to free society from the expectation to conform. The impact of the revelation of truth and changes that McMurphy brings with him. Not only do McMurphys miracles encourage self-expression, McMurphy leads by example, audaciously expressing his views that differ from society. Though McMurphy and Christ are similar in this respect, the revelations and change each brings is different. Before Christs arrival, the Pharisees had established numerous rules for what was considered ‘rest on the Sabbath. Jesus defied the rules by healing a man on the Sabbath, telling the Pharisees, â€Å"What man is there among you who has a sheep, and if it falls into a pit on the Sabbath, will he not take hold of it and lift it out? How much more valuable then is a man than a sheep!†Jesus redefined ‘rest on the Sabbath and taught them that doing good works on the Sabbath is far more essential than adhering to rituals. This is one of the many instances where Jesus challenged the Pharisees interpretations of rules. McMurphy, likewise, questions the rules by exposing the intentions of Nurse Ratched. Contrary to Hardings angelic depiction of Nurse Ratched as a â€Å"sweet, smiling, tender angel of mercy†, the sibilance in â€Å"sweet†, â€Å"smiling† and â€Å"mercy† brings out a hissing sound, like that of the serpent in Genesis, that led to Adam and Eves downfall. From this, readers can gather that she may not be who she appears to be. Like the serpent, she might possess evil motives. Furthermore, McMurphy likens therapeutic sessions to a â€Å"peckin party†, where one chicken is ripped to â€Å"shreds, blood and bones and feathers†. He reveals that Nurse Ratched does not have the patients welfare in mind. She initiates the fights by taking the first peck â€Å"where it hurts the most†, in an attempt to weaken them into compliance. Explosive words in the description of the therapeutic sessions are uttered with force, emphasizing her bestiality. This novel is possibly a medium to voice Keseys political dissatisfaction. In 1950s America, Eisenhower, a five-star military general and right-wing conservative, served his term as President. It was an era of conformity under his leadership. Kesey, however, did not conform to societal standards, but rebelled against conservative societal norms of his time. In a society where the typical American man had strict religious views, Keseys behaviour was controversial. Through the exposure of Nurse Ratcheds wicked intentions, Kesey encourages Americans to question policies implemented by the government. Evidently, Kesey was not the only one who thought that some rules would stifle ones individuality. Anti-establishment feelings were becoming rampant, with Hollywood movies like ‘Rebels Without A Cause. Another revelation that McMurphy brings is that the patients are not the rabbits they believe to be. According to Harding, â€Å"The ritual of our existence is based on the strong getting stronger by devouring the weak. We must learn to accept it as a law of the natural world†¦ (The rabbit) knows his place. He most certainly doesnt challenge the wolf to combat.†This is similar to the messages that Christ preached about the meek inheriting the earthand turning the other cheek when one is wronged. Similarly, the inmates behaviour is Christ-like. They believe they are not going to win by fighting, and do not retaliate against the ‘Combine. However, McMurphy proves that the rabbits can overcome the wolf. He alters institutionalised policies by Nurse Ratched, regarding the viewing of World Series, the use of the tub room for the ‘Acutes, as well as cigarette rationing. The message Kesey brings is different from Christ. Kesey preaches that one must assert himself in order to save his life, contrary to biblical teachings that one must lose himself in order to save his life. During the sixties, the rabbit metaphor allowed society to view themselves as Kesey does. Having progressed from the fifties, America was going through a series of rapid changes. This decade saw the rise of the counterculture the civil rights movement, gay liberation, sexual revolution and Beat Movement. Kesey was part of the Beat Generation. In the context of the institution, the ones who submit to Nurse Ratched are the mentally insane â€Å"rabbits†. Conversely, readers perceive McMurphy, who challenges Nurse Ratcheds authority, as sane. Through this setting and Hardings metaphor, readers view the conformists of society through Keseys eyes. Kesey makes readers ponder, â€Å"Is it insane to challenge rules and authority? Could it be that the mentally insane are, in fact, the ones who subject themselves without question to authorities?† The likeness of Christs disciples and McMurphys followers. Besides revealing truths that instil confidence in the patients, McMurphy also empowers them when he â€Å"(leads) the twelve of (them) toward the ocean†, to become â€Å"fishers of men†- just as Jesus did. This is a direct allusion to Jesus, who takes his twelve disciples fishing. McMurphys disciples are empowered with laughter, and manage to find humour amidst calamity. Their laughter â€Å"rang out on the water in ever-widening circles, farther and farther in wave after wave after wave.†This is like McMurphys laugh which â€Å"spreads in rings bigger and bigger till its lapping against the walls all over the ward†. The imagery of vast space that their laughter reaches emphasizes its genuineness. It is unrestricted and liberating. This is contrasted with the snickers the patients make with their fistsearlier on. Their laughter seems controlled, as if it forced within the confines of their hands, implying its falsity. Laughter is a source of sanity and strength to McMurphy, who believes that â€Å"you have to laugh at the things that hurt you just to keep the world from running you plumb crazy†and that one â€Å"cant really be strong until (he) sees a funny side to things†. Laughter is a means of salvation and freedom from oppressio n. Unlike Christs ‘fishers of men who spread the message of salvation, McMurphys ‘fishers of men are called to spread the redemptive power of laughter to mankind. By drawing a parallel to Christs followers, Kesey casts McMurphys followers in a favourable light. McMurphys disciples, who indulge in laughter, resemble The Merry Pranksters a group in the Beat Generation who indulged in pleasures atypical of society. Kesey promotes the message that what is deemed socially unacceptable may not necessarily be wrong. Right and wrong is not determined by the views of majority; but rather, by the consequences of the act. McMurphy empowers his followers with boldness. To the gas station servicemen who give them condescending looks, McMurphy lies that they came from the â€Å"criminal-insane ward†, with Billy Bibbit who was an â€Å"insane knife artist that killed three men† and so on. This causes everybody to call orders to the service-station men, â€Å"just like (they) owned the show† They stare at people at a stop light, intimidating them. It is noteworthy how antithetical to Christ, McMurphy uses immoral means, like fabrications, to empower his disciples. Perhaps it is for Kesey to remind readers that McMurphy is still a flawed human. In his attempt to humanise a saviour, Kesey relates that one does not have to be Christ or immortal to possess the same self-sacrificial love that knows no bounds. Although McMurphy maintains his profane disposition, he becomes increasingly Christ-like; not only in character, but also in the experiences they share. McMurphys dubious moral standards are juxtaposed with his Christ-likeness, to reveal what Kesey feels are the more important aspects of being a saviour. Kesey and The Merry Pranksters rebelled against authority by experimenting with hallucinogens and their sexuality. Like non-conformist McMurphy, they took to worldly pleasures. Due to the religious surge in post-WW2, readers of the sixties would have frowned upon the seemingly unprincipled lives of The Merry Pranksters and McMurphy. By presenting McMurphy as a secular Christ-figure, Kesey upholds that the positive contribution one brings to society overrides the importance of strictly adhering to biblical rules. McMurphy is proof that a morally flawed character can bring monumental benefits to his community. The meaning in McMurphys death. The events leading to McMurphys death accentuate his Christ-likeness. Because McMurphy fights the aides to protect George, Nurse Ratched sends him to be electroshocked. Electroshock treatment is likened to a crucifixion, with a cross-shaped table Before McMurphys crucifixion, he says, â€Å"Anointest my head with conductant. Do I get a crown of thorns?†This is comparable to Christs crown of thorns. Furthermore, a man announces: â€Å"I wash my hands off this whole deal† an echo of Pontius Pilates words before he executed Christ. This foreshadows McMurphys eventual death. Before the crucifixion of Christ, Jesus had his ‘Last Supper with his disciples. The traitor Judas Iscariot was amongst them. McMurphys ‘Last Supper at the asylum is celebrated with alcohol and his hiring of two whores, one of whom Bibbit loses his virginity to in the ‘Seclusion Room Following Nurse Ratcheds discovery and threats of telling his mother, Bibbit identifies McMurphy as the mastermind behind this. He then commits suicide by â€Å"(cutting) his throat†, unable to handle the guilt. A parallel can be drawn to Judas Iscariot, who betrayed Jesus and then hung himself out of remorse McMurphy, upset about Nurse Ratcheds strong influence over Bibbit, smashes through the glass and rips her uniform down the front, exposing her breasts In doing so, McMurphy brings his final revelation of the truth that Nurse Ratched is merely human, changing the patients mechanical perception of her forever. From then on, she â€Å"couldnt rule with her old power†, as she could â€Å"no longer conceal the fact that she was a woman† McMurphy pays for this with his mind the very thing that defines his life. Nurse Ratched sends him for a lobotomy that leaves him a â€Å"Vegetable. Bromden refers to him as â€Å"it†, knowing McMurphy is already dead inside, and â€Å"mashed the pillow into the face† to find that â€Å"the expression hadnt changed from the blank, dead-end look the least bit†. The term â€Å"mash† connotes violence in the merciful act of killing McMurphy. The paradox of mercy killing is redolent of the Roman centurion who drove a spear through Christs side, relieving his suffering by quickening his death. McMurphy dies as a crucified person would: by suffocation. He could have undertaken his plan to escape and live, but chose to die for the inmates sake. Likewise, Christ died on the cross to save mankind. The 1960s society would have a thorough comprehension of the torture endured by Christ, a fundamental concept of Christianity. A Christ-like death for McMurphy effectively evokes sympathy in readers. Hence, it is likely that the readers respect for McMurphy, who sacrifices his very being, far outweigh their feelings of disapproval regarding McMurphys profane antics. Just as Christ resurrected from death, McMurphy resurrects in his disciples. They become more assured, and are â€Å"no more rabbits† as Harding says. As a result of his death, â€Å"everything was changing†: almost everyone either signed out or transferred out and the new nurse â€Å"gave the guys a chance to change a lot of the ward policy† Of all his disciples, McMurphy is kept most alive in Chief Bromden. McMurphy transfers his powers to Bromden, who becomes stronger as McMurphy becomes weaker. Previously, the plot is seen through Bromdens unclear fogginess, which gradually disappears towards the end as he gains clarity of mind. The schizophrenic is even able to distinguish between delusions and reality, when he says â€Å"There was little brown birds occasionally on the fence; when a puff of leaves would hit the fence the birds would fly off with the wind. It looked at first like the leaves were hitting the fence and turning into birds and flying away.†At the end, he courageously confronts the unhappy past that caused his insanity, by looking â€Å"around the gorge†, â€Å"just to bring some of it clear in (his) mind again†, rather than hide behind fog and muteness like he had done before. Narrating the story from Bromdens perspective allows readers to observe his transformation. In Robert Faggens interview with Kesey during one of his visits to Keseys Oregon farm in 1992 and 1993, Kesey recounted an event he witnessed: In order to stop the dam project in Portland, an Indian ran into an oncoming truck that carried the materials the government would use to build the dam. The Indian, who did everything he could to protect his land, prompted Kesey to realise â€Å"the notion of what you have to pay for a lifestyle† Keseys message resounds throughout the novel, even more so after McMurphys death. Freedom comes at a cost, but its benefit is far-reaching. CONCLUSION The novel is replete with allusions of McMurphy to Christ. Despite McMurphys distinctive presence being evident in the beginning, there is no hint of his Christ-likeness at that point. On hindsight, Christ came blamelessly and without sin as a baby, to a world full of sinners. In this respect, he was superior to society; yet he entered this world humbly in a manger. While it is no rarity for humans to possess either an air of superiority or humility, it is uncommon for one to be both superior and humble. It is fair to say that the characteristics of McMurphy are somewhat reminiscent of Christ. While the first miracle that McMurphy performs on Ellis lasts only for a moment, the subsequent miracle sparks a transformation in Bromden. Further on, McMurphy begins to bear a greater resemblance to not only Christs character, but also to specific experiences he brings truth and change to his community, and takes his followers on a fishing trip. McMurphys death is another allusion. After Mc Murphy finishes his ‘Last Supper, one disciple betrays him. This leads to his crucifixion, mental death through lobotomy and finally his physical demise; with his resurrection portrayed through Chief Bromden. The series of inconspicuous allusions intensify as the plot develops. However, while McMurphy learns to be more Christ-like, he is different from Christ. Kesey shapes McMurphy as a crude and profane individual, making him a satirical Comic Christ. Kesey uses McMurphys journey to Christ-likeness to address significant issues such as conformity and individuality, the triumph of good over evil, freedom from oppression. These are recurring themes in most of Keseys works, namely Zoo and Sometimes A Great Notion. McMurphy, as a Christ-figure, brings this novel to a whole new level of sacrosanctity, which is apt, considering it holds these themes that are important to Kesey. Uneven forces will always exist in this world, good and evil, the strong and the weak, the dominant and the meek. As such, these issues remain relevant in modern times. The interpretation of this novel has been largely dependent on my perception of who Christ is. Kesey, who held interest in psychic phenomena, use of the I-Ching, Eastern religions and the Bible, may not have had the same idea of Christ as others when writing the novel; but as with all literary works, interpretation is open to its readers. Given the vast number of religions and cultures, each individual has differing perspectives on Christs character. Whether he adheres to Christianity, Judaism, Atheism or any other religion, new syntheses can be created regarding these key themes. After all, as Kesey teaches us, each man is entitled to a mind of his own.

compression :: essays research papers

Due to compression, TV audio and video require less bandwidth and multiple digital TV channels can fit unto one satellite transponder as oppose to a single analogue channel occupying the whole transmission line. A TV signal is captured by a camera and then manipulated during program production. At this point the video must be at its highest quality and full bandwidth for recording, editing and special effects purposes. Then the TV signal needs to be compressed for economical transmission and storage. The possible efficiency of compression depends on a couple of factors. If a signal will be further edited and manipulated in the receiving studio it must maintain a relatively high quality and therefore can’t be compressed as much as a signal that will be sent directly to the viewer’s TV set. Also, the extent to which a signal can be successfully compressed depends on the type of program (E.g. movies can be compressed more than sports). Nevertheless, a typical program mix will fit up to 10 digital television channels on one transmission line. Furthermore, compression techniques that fall into two categories: lossless (reversible, no data loss) and lossy (irreversible, greater data reduction). Effective compression is best achieved with a combination of data reduction techniques such as bit rate reduction and compression. The difference is that bit rate reduction eliminates unnoticeable data, and compression removes unnecessary and excessive data through mathematical algorithms. Due to different forms of redundancy and the fact that the human visual system is unable to detect certain details, information can be altered or removed causing changes that are imperceptible to the human eye or brain. After compression, the structure data, audio and video must be multiplexed. A number of compressed TV signals are combined by a multiplexer and put unto a shared transition medium. This is done by one of the two possible kinds of multiplexers that result in either a transport or a program stream, which is suited for secure transmission paths since it can contain large amounts of information. In addition multiplexing can be done using various methods. Time division multiplexing allocates a distinct time interval for each channel in a set; with the help of synchronization and a fixed interval order the channels take turns using the common line.

Breach of contract †contract law Essay

Spanish Contract Law provides a broad notion of breach of contract for any behavior that departs from the specified behavior in the contract in any way (time, quality, substance, etc.) or is not specially justified on legal grounds (actions forbidden by the government are not breaches since they are justified on a legal ground). The general benchmark to determine breach is the contract agreed by the parties themselves, and not external notions. However, external notions are used in important situation such as the consumer’s market where the consumer’s expectations are the primary benchmarks to assess quality and performance since there is not an explicit contract. External notions are also important in other market, where a third party may have some duty or responsibility over the contract, and therefore, is responsible (at least in part) for any potential breach. The reason for breach does not exclude the breach. What matters is the breach. The analysis of breach takes place in objective terms. Subjective factors generally do not exclude breach, although they may affect remedies. In certain contractual areas, breach of duty and fault are generally required (professional contracts, management contracts: breach requires violation of a duty of care or a duty of loyalty). In professional contracts, the fault may be of a professional who was in contract with the firm, and in management contracts, it may be the fault of the manager. 2) Remedies: Spanish Contract Law provides a wide range of general remedies for breach of contract: †¢ Specific performance: the court forces the breacher to act as it was established in the contract. If for example, the contract stipulated that the promiser had to give the promisee a product of quality 2 and he delivers a good of quality 1, then as remedy the court force the promiser to deliver a good of quality 2. †¢ Damages: the court force the breacher to pay a certain amount of money  (damages) to the other party as compensation. It is a monetary remedy. The court calculate the amount to be paid. †¢ Liquidated damages: these are also monetary compensation, but with the difference that they are not calculated by the court, but they are instead specified in the contract itself. One example are the soccer players’ contracts, or sale contracts that specifies the amount to be paid for each day of delay. Other general remedies that we can find are: †¢ Termination: if a party suffers a breach, it can contract with another party and abandon its contractual obligation. If the breacher does not agree with this, court is necessary. †¢ Reduction of prices: in case of breach of a party, a general remedy is to reduce the price to equilibrate the contract. Generally, it is the aggrieved party who chooses the remedy to be imposed. 3) Specific performance: Specific performance is a remedy for breach characterized by the fact that a failed performance or departure from required action by the contract will be imposed upon breaching party. It is also characterized by several material variants of the remedy such as: forced delivery, forced action, injunction not to do, repair defective performance and replace non-conforming good. In the case of the injunction not to do, the court oblige the breacher not to do something, such as obliging a CEO to work for the competition if in the contract it was stipulated that he cannot. Specific performance conceptually includes repair and replacement of consumer goods. The main issue with specific performance, when it is feasible, is the issue of the balance of benefits and costs of the remedy. Specific performance implies that the breacher perform as the contract establishes. However, sometimes, the cost of this performance may be higher than the benefit in social welfare terms. Take the example of the mining firm, which has a contract with the owner of the land to mine for 10 years and then clean the land. When the 10 year pass, the firms breaches the contract and refuse to clean. The cost of cleaning the land is 20 millions, and the benefit for the  owner is 1 million. So if the court imposes a specific performance to firm, society will loose 19 millions. A good alternative would be to impose damages to the firm, which would be preferred by the owner, since an agreement between the firm and the owner will be reached that maximize the social welfare. In these cases, performance may be more costly than its value for promisee: performance may be ex post inefficient. There are both positive and negative features of specific performance as a remedy. As positive features, we can distinguish low informational requirements to apply remedy (avoids cost of error linked to estimating damages) and the party aggrieved by breach appears to be satisfied in its promissory expectation. As negative features, we find performance may be more costly than its value for promisee (performance may be ex post inefficient), requires a court order and takes time, for complex performances requires costly and difficult supervision by court and performance by a party forced to comply with contract may be perfunctory (lowest effort) at best. 4) Damages: Damages are understood as general remedies that can be applied to all types of contracts and breaches of contracts. It is a remedy defined in very broad terms: amount of money to compensate any harm suffered by the injured party as a consequence of any breach of contract. We can differentiate between two kinds of damages: expectation and reliance damages. This is why it is a remedy with a variable extension. Expectation damages: Expectation damages is the sum of money that will give the party damaged the same amount of welfare and utility than if the contract would not have been breached and the final result would have been attained. Therefore, the breach party would have to pay the aggrieved party an amount of money that would compensate for the harm caused and in addition an amount of money equal to the value of the performance for this party. There are however some problems with expectation damages since they are difficult to compute and some instances of moral hazard may appear. Those who seek for damages have to provide evidence of both the existence and amount of damages. This requirement has some exceptions in case of harm in re ipsa: illegitimate use of a productive good, deprivation of a productive good, and few other examples. Expectation damages is the general rule in Spanish Law for breach of contract. It is the damage measure that accompanies termination for breach and the replacement measure of specific performance. It is awarded when there is a breach of representations and warranties, advertising and promotional communications and in cases of pre-contractual fraud that are equivalent to breach of contracts. How can we compute expectation damages? When goods or services admit substitutes or cover transactions to avoid the negative consequences of the other party’s breach of contract, the price of these transactions is relevant. If the seller breaches the contract and the buyer has bought a good, generally fungible, then the expectation damages will be equal to the difference between the price of the substitute and the price established in the contract: Psub-Pc. If the buyer breaches the contract and the seller celebrates a cover sale the expectation damages would be equal to the difference between the price established in the contract and the price of the new sale: Pc-Psub. Other ways of computing expectation damages are the following: Market damages: (for fungible good with market price) buyer will receive expectation damages consisting of the difference between the market price when the breach of contract took place (Pm) and the contract price (Pc). Seller will receive the opposite difference. Expectation damages present some limitations that reduce it scope and amount. One of this limitations is the foreseeability rule. This rule state that the breacher should only be liable for the things that are foreseen or could have foreseen at the time of contracting and that are necessary  consequence of his failure to perform. For instance, if the foreseeable harm of a breach is 100 and the aggrieved party end up suffering a loss of 1000, the foreseeability rule states that damages will amount only to 100. The foreseeability rule gives incentives to give information in the time of contracting. Those who suffer from harm must declare the value of the performance. In tort law, there is no foreseeability rule, you pay the actual damage. Another limitation is the duty to mitigate damages: the aggrieved party is under the duty to mitigate damages that the other contracting party has caused with her / his breach of contract. Reliance damages: Reliance damages: sum of money that will give the party damaged the same amount of welfare and utility than if the contract would not have taken place (the initial situation). This is why reliance damages are generally lower than expectation damages. Reliance damages cover expenses for the injured party derived from concluding the contract, specific investments that the injured party has made in reliance of performance of the contract by the other party and opportunity costs. Limited assets: Damages do not always work well. Sometimes, individuals can bear the payment of these damages, and therefore, they will have incentives to reduce them. However, this is not always the case. When the breacher has not enough assets to pay damages up to the point of optimal care, damages do not work well, because people will not pay for the consequences of their acts, and therefore, their level of care will be the optimal according to what they can pay, and not what they should pay. This is known as judgement proof problem. Damages for pain and suffering: The traditional position of the Spanish Supreme Court and Spanish Courts is: †¢ To accept damages for pain and suffering for breach of contract †¢ To award damages for pain and suffering with a relative amplitude and generosity. †¢ To award damages for pain and suffering with several functions: †¢ To avoid the problems of calculating and justifying the amount of the damage award †¢ To compensate harm in personality rights (right to life, liberty, honor, etc.). †¢ To compensate non-patrimonial values joined to economic goods and rights (discomfort, inconvenience, disappointment, frustration) †¢ To punish intolerable or egregious behaviors of breach of contract. When an individual suffer harm, her utility decreases (she goes form point A to point B, but her utility function for money will not change). If this harm is economic, we can compensate this harm with money, which will leave her at point A again. However, the harm that an individual can suffer may be non-economic, and for the same amount of money her utility decreases (her utility function changes). Money cannot restore the initial utility (a huge amount would be needed). This is the case of pain and suffering (accident and death of a relative, discomfort, etc). This is why it is useless to take insurance for death, since it would not compensate the harm. The hairy hand example: What is the difference between expectation and reliance damage? Let’s look at an example. An individual was injured in his hand and lost 50% of his use. He entered in a contract with a doctor who promised to reestablish the hand to a 100% of use in exchange for quantity of money. Before the contract was made, the individual was situated in an indifference curve that related all the  combination of hand use and money that let the individual indifferent. We assume that the individual is willing to give up hand use for money. After the contract and operation, the individual was worse off, with 25% of use. What should the doctor pay as damage? If expectation damages are used, the doctor should pay the individual a quantity of money that together with the 25% of hand use leave him with the same utiity as if the contract had succeded and he had 100% of use (situate him in a higher indifference curve). If reliance damages are imposed, the doctor should pay the individual a quantit y of money that, together with the 25% of hand use, leave him with the same utility as if the contract did not take place, with 50% of hand use (situate him in the initial indifference curve). 5) Liquidated damages: Liquidated damages are damages for breach that are not determined ex post breach by a Court or arbitration panel, but ex ante by the contract parties themselves into the contract. Such possibility of â€Å"privately stipulated† remedies for breach is acknowledged by most legal systems, typically in the form of payment of money, although other possibilities may exist. They typically replace Court damages and they can be agreed as added penalty for breach. The most important issue is whether Courts are forced to enforce liquidated damages, or they may disregard, or reduce, the amount of the liquidated damages award. The reasons why Courts allow liquidated damages are: †¢ Freedom of contract †¢ A large liquidated damages clause may be necessary to induce promisee to find promise credible and the contract sustainable. †¢ Parties are in a better position than Courts to assess benefits and costs of determining a given amount. †¢ Liquidated damages compensate systematic underestimation of damages by Courts. If liquidated damages are higher than the expectation damages, then the court will apply the second ones. There are however some economic arguments that may lead to reduce or at least control the level of liquidated damages clauses: †¢ â€Å"Excessive† damages clauses resulting from incorrect predictions or forecasts about future outcomes. †¢ External shocks unforeseen by parties that produce an unexpected increase in the damages payment. †¢ True â€Å"uncertainty† about future costs for one party. †¢ Behavioral biases that lead party to underestimate the true adverse impact of a damages clause (the â€Å"deferred cost problem†): †¢ Over-optimism concerning future performance and costs (the example of the gym) †¢ Hyperbolic discounting of future outcomes We can see the liquidated damages as barriers to entry. An excessive amount of LD is beneficial for the parties to the detriment of a third party who  may bid for the services of breaching party. Promisor agrees to pay an amount larger than ED, in exchange of higher price. Promisee uses high liquidated damages to extract larger payment from a third party interested in performance by promisor: larger payment from third party increases the surplus to the contract parties, that is shared between them. Also, excessive payment of third party are made possible by excessive damages clauses, which reduce efficient entry by third parties, and prevents them from successfully bidding for promisor’s performance. That is why the goal of reducing â€Å"excessive† liquidated damages is not to protect the breaching party, but third-parties. Sometimes, excessive LD for signaling are unwanted, since an unforeseeable contingency may appear that will cause a breach in the contract. A pooling equilibrium may be more desirable than a separating one when the distortion caused by the penalty on the â€Å"good type† is large enough. 6) Termination: Among the general remedies for breach, the last one is termination (or rescission, or cancellation, as it may also be called in Common Law jurisdictions). This remedy entitles the aggrieved party to cancel the contractual relationship with the breaching party, eliminating the obligations arising from the terminated contract. Once the contract is terminated the parties should give back what was received under the contract, unless the goods are now in lawful possession of a third party. In this case, the value of the goods would replace the goods themselves. The elimination of the effects of the contract is retroactive: it is considered that the contract did not exist. Spanish courts have established that termination does not require a lawsuit. However, if the other party disputes the termination or its conditions, restitution would require a lawsuit. Courts do not determine termination, but declare whether termination was or not properly effected by the party. The most contested issue about termination is when is termination available as a remedy. It is clear that not every breach or non-performance allows the  aggrieved party to terminate, but a qualified breach (material or fundamental breach) is required. We can define it as follow: †¢ Relevance: the breach must affect the central obligations or duties under the contract and not merely ancillary or incidental duties. †¢ Duration: the breach should not be merely sporadic or transitory, but likely to be repeated or continuing. †¢ Importance: the breach must substantially affect the interests of the non-defaulting party. Termination does not go alone, it does not exclude damages, and in fact it is naturally accompanied by damages payment.

Ben Wallace Biography

Ben Wallace Biography Free Online Research Papers â€Å"Subhuman conditions produce subhumans.† Richard Wright’s theme in Native Son says that if you grow up in a family or city that does not have a lot of success, you won’t be successful yourself. It relates to naturalism in a direct way. Naturalism says that your fate depends on your environment and your heredity. I do not believe this theory. There are many others who also don’t believe this theory. One person that disproves this theory is Ben Wallace. Growing up in Benton, Alabama, one of the smallest towns in the country was hard on Ben and his ten siblings. Having a single parent was even harder. Ben’s mother, Mama Sadie, was having a hard time coming up with food and a decent shelter for her family. She grew cotton in a small patch in the yard and also grew crops that would help feed the family. Because of the lack of money they had, Mama had to make clothes for the family. She was a hard worker that never gave up. Because of all the hard work their mother went through, Ben and his brothers tried to help out by working around their area. They helped nearby farmers complete chores on the farm to make some extra cash and help out the family. As he grew older, he learned that he had a new talent. Ben began to cut hair. His reputation grew and soon he started to cut the neighborhood kids’ hair for $3 each. He learned what it felt like to earn what you worked for. Ben Wallace worked hard at everything he did. In high school, he was All-State in baseball, football, basketball and track. Lots of things made Ben the person he was but most likely it was all the hard work he put into every thing he did. Though he did most of the work, people like Charles Oakley, former player who helped Ben get to college, helped. Ultimately, hard work and determination helped Ben reach the level that he dreamed to play at. He is now living the life of a superstar. From growing up in a small town with little money and ten siblings, to becoming a star athlete and earning $60 million for four years is a huge change. Ben Wallace is a prime example that subhuman conditions do not produce subhumans. I think that this theory is flawed and can be disproved by anyone willing to disprove it. I don’t believe that people are controlled by their environment or by their heredity. For example, if my parents were alcoholics and I saw the way they treated me when they were drunk, I would not want to be alcoholic so that I wouldn’t treat my children that way. The way Ben made it through a hard environment shows many others that it can be done. With hard work and determination, you can rise above anything that holds you down. Source Ben Wallace Biography. JockBio.Com. 13 Dec. 2007 . Research Papers on Ben Wallace BiographyThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationNever Been Kicked Out of a Place This NiceThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug Use19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraHip-Hop is ArtEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductGenetic EngineeringStandardized TestingPETSTEL analysis of India

Bishops in the Medieval Christian Church

Bishops in the Medieval Christian Church In the Christian  Church of the Middle Ages, a bishop was the chief pastor of a diocese; that is, an area containing more than one congregation. The bishop was an ordained priest who served as pastor of one congregation and oversaw the administration of any others in his district.   Any church that served as the primary office of a bishop was considered his seat, or cathedra, and was therefore known as a cathedral. The office or rank of a bishop is known as a bishopric. Origins of the term Bishop The word Bishop derives from the Greek epà ­skopos (á ¼ Ãâ‚¬ÃŽ ¯ÃÆ'ÃŽ ºÃŽ ¿Ãâ‚¬ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š), which meant an overseer, curator or guardian.   The Duties Like any priest, a bishop baptized, performed weddings, gave last rites, settled disputes, and heard confession and absolved. In addition, bishops controlled church finances, ordained priests, assigned clergy to their posts, and dealt with any number of matters pertaining to Church business.   Types of Bishops in Medieval Times An archbishop was a bishop who oversaw several dioceses besides his own. The term metropolitan has sometimes been used for the archbishop of a city.The Pope is the bishop of Rome. The holder of this see was considered the successor to St. Peter, and the office grew in prestige and influence over the first few centuries of the Middle Ages. Before the end of the fifth century, the office was established as the foremost authority in the western Christian Church, and the  bishop of Rome  became known as the father, or papa, or pope.Patriarchs were bishops of particularly important sees in the eastern churches (which, after the Great Schism of 1054, would eventually become known as the Eastern Orthodox Church). This included the apostolic sees those believed to have been founded by Apostles: Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople, and JerusalemCardinal-bishops (now known simply as cardinals) were a privileged class as far back as the 8th century, and only those bishops who had received the red hat (a mark of a cardinal) could elect the pope or become pope. Secular Influence as Well as Spiritual Power Some Christian churches, including the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox, maintain that bishops are the successors of the Apostles; this is known as apostolic succession. As the Middle Ages unfolded, bishops often held secular influence as well as spiritual power thanks in part to this perception of inherited authority.   A Three-Fold Ministry by the Second Century Just exactly when bishops attained a separate identity from presbyters (elders) is unclear, but by the second century C.E, the early Christian Church had evidently established a three-fold ministry of deacons, priests, and bishops. Once the emperor Constantine professed Christianity and began to help followers of the religion, bishops grew in prestige, particularly if the city that constituted their diocese was populous and had a notable number of Christians.   Filling the Void After Collapse of the Roman Empire In the years following the collapse of the western Roman Empire (officially, in 476 C.E.), bishops often stepped in to fill the void secular leaders left behind in unstable areas and depleted cities. While theoretically church officials were supposed to limit their influence to spiritual matters, by answering the needs of society these fifth-century bishops set a precedent, and the lines between church and state would be fairly blurry throughout the rest of the medieval era. The Investiture Controversy Another development that arose out of the uncertainties of early medieval society was the proper selection and investment of clerics, especially bishops and archbishops. Because various dioceses were flung far across Christendom, and the pope was not always easily accessible, it became a fairly common practice for local secular leaders to appoint clerics to replace those who had died (or, rarely, left their offices). But by the late 11th century, the papacy found the influence this gave secular leaders in church matters opprobrious and attempted to ban it. Thus began the Investiture Controversy, a struggle lasting 45 years that, when resolved in favor of the Church, strengthened the papacy at the expense of local monarchies and gave bishops freedom from secular political authorities. The Protestant Reformation When the Protestant churches split from Rome in the Reformation  of the 16th century,  the office of the bishop was rejected by some reformers. This was due in part to the lack of any basis for the office in the New Testament, and in part to the corruption that high clerical offices had been associated with over the preceding few hundred years. Most Protestant churches today have no bishops, although some Lutheran churches in Germany, Scandinavia and the U.S. do, and the Anglican church (which after the break initiated by Henry VIII retained many aspects of Catholicism) also has bishops. Sources and Suggested Reading Eusebius. The History of the Church: From Christ to Constantine. Edited and with an introduction by Andrew Louth; translated by G. A. Williamson, Penguin Classics. John D. Zizioulas. Eucharist, Bishop, Church: The Unity of the Church in the Divine Eucharist and the Bishop During the First Three Centuries.